SYPHILIS

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidium. The infection is usually sexually transmitted, in which case it is called venereal syphilis. It may also be passed from an infected mother to her unborn child, in which case it is known as congenital syphilis.

Syphilis has been uncommon since penicillin become widely available in the 1950s, although global syphilis statistics show that in recent years the number of cases has been rising. The World Health Organisation estimates that 12 million new cases of venereal syphilis occurred in 1999.¹

“The past decade has seen a rise in new cases of the almost forgotten ‘historic disease’ syphilis, particularly in certain risk groups.” - Alexandra Geusau and Stefan Wöhrl, Medical University of Vienna ²

Syphilis symptoms

The symptoms of syphilis are the same in men and women. They can be mild and difficult to recognise or distinguish from other STDs. Symptoms may take up to 3 months to appear after initial infection. Syphilis is a slowly progressing disease that has several stages. The primary and secondary stages are very infectious.

Primary stage

One or more painless ulcers (know as chancres) appear at the place where the syphilis bacteria entered the body. On average, this will be 21 days after sexual contact with an infected person. Chancres may be difficult to notice and are highly infectious. The usual locations for chancres are:

• on the vulva (outside the vagina) or on the cervix (neck of the womb) in women.
• on the penis in men.
• around the anus and mouth (both sexes).

The ulcers take between 2 and 6 weeks to heal.

If the infection is not treated at this point then it will progress to the secondary stage.

Secondary stage

If the infection has not been treated, the secondary stage will usually occur from 3 to 6 weeks after the appearance of chancres. The symptoms often include:

• a flu-like illness, a feeling of tiredness and loss of appetite, accompanied by swollen glands (this can last for weeks or months).
• a non-itchy rash covering the whole body or appearing in patches.
• flat, warty-looking growths on the vulva in women and around the anus in both sexes.
• white patches on the tongue or roof of the mouth.
• patchy hair loss.

During this stage syphilis is very infectious and may be sexually transmitted to a partner. These symptoms will usually clear up within a few weeks, but may re-occur for years.

Treatment at any time during the first two stages of syphilis will cure the infection.

Latent and tertiary stages

If a person infected with syphilis has not received treatment during the first two stages of the disease then it will progress to the latent stage. The person will no longer experience any symptoms of the earlier stages, but their infection can still be diagnosed with a blood test.

If left untreated, the infection may develop into symptomatic late syphilis, also known as the tertiary stage. This usually develops after more than 10 years and is often very serious. It is at this stage that syphilis can affect the heart and possibly the nervous system.

If treatment for syphilis is given during the latent stage then the infection can be cured. However, any heart or nervous-system damage that occurred before the start of treatment may be irreversible.

How syphilis is passed on

Syphilis can be transmitted through direct contact with a syphilis sore. The methods of transmission are:

• by having vaginal, anal or oral sex with someone who has the infection.
• from a mother to her unborn baby.

Syphilis cannot be passed on by sharing baths, toilets, towels or eating utensils.

Where to go for help

If you have any symptoms or you are worried you may have been infected with syphilis, you should discuss your worries with a doctor. They may be able to run tests or offer you treatment themselves, or else will refer you to someone who can.

Some countries have specific sexual health clinics that can help you directly. Check AVERT's help and advice page or your local telephone directory to see if you have a clinic near you.

The diagnosis of syphilis

To find out if someone has syphilis, a doctor will usually carry out the following examinations and tests:

• a blood sample is taken and sent to an STD testing laboratory.
• a specimen of fluid is taken from all sores using a cotton swab and examined under a microscope.
• the genital area is examined for any primary signs of syphilis. The rest of the body is also checked.
• women are given an internal examination to check for sores.
• a sample of urine is taken.

None of the examinations should be painful, but they may be slightly uncomfortable. The blood samples taken by the doctor are examined in a laboratory under a microscope to confirm a diagnosis. Various tests can be used on the blood sample. The most common and least expensive looks for antibodies.

The examinations and tests can be done as soon as a person thinks they might have been in contact with syphilis. However, if the result is negative then it is usually recommended that the person retests at a later time, as it can take up to 3 months for the immune system to produce the antibodies that are detected by the test.

Treatment

If the patient has syphilis, the doctor or sexual health adviser will talk about the STD and answer any questions. The patient will be asked about their sexual partners as it is important they are informed and tested as soon as possible.

It is strongly advisable to avoid any oral, vaginal or anal sex whilst having treatment, especially if the patient is in the early infectious stages of syphilis. Contact with any sores or rashes carries a risk of syphilis transmission.

Treatment of syphilis usually consists of a two-week course of intramuscular penicillin injections or, in some cases, antibiotic tablets or capsules. If the patient has had syphilis for less than a year then fewer doses will be needed.

If the patient is allergic to any antibiotics, or if there is any possibility that they may be pregnant, then the doctor should be informed so that alternate medication can be prescribed.

It is important that the full course of treatment be completed. If treatment is interrupted then it may be necessary to start again from the beginning.

After the treatment is completed, the patient will be asked to attend the clinic at regular intervals for blood tests to check that the syphilis has gone.

Once a person has been treated and confirmed cleared of syphilis, any future blood tests (e.g. for immigration reasons) will still be positive, because the body retains antibodies against the bacteria. Doctors can give the person a certificate explaining that they have been treated and no longer have syphilis.

Treatment is only capable of killing the syphilis bacteria and preventing further damage. It cannot repair damage already done to organs, or prevent re-infection if the person is exposed to the bacteria again.

Prevention

Although using a condom reduces the chances of becoming infected with syphilis, it is not entirely effective. A condom may not cover all of the sores or rashes in the affected areas, and direct skin contact may result in transmission.

If a person has sex regularly with multiple partners, then it is advisable for them to get frequent STD check-ups.

A person can become re-infected with syphilis even if they have had effective treatment for a previous infection. Past infection with syphilis does not make a person immune.

Congenital syphilis

Syphilis can infect a baby in the womb if the mother's infection is not treated. This is know as congenital syphilis. If a baby becomes infected then there is a high risk of stillbirth or miscarriage.

A newborn baby may not display any obvious symptoms of syphilis, but may develop serious complications within weeks if the disease is not treated.

In many countries, blood tests for syphilis are given to all pregnant women when they visit antenatal clinics. Women may also be offered other tests for other STDs, such as an HIV test when pregnant.

If a woman is found to be infected with syphilis, treatment can safely be given during pregnancy with no risk to the unborn baby.

Chlamydia: symptoms, treatment & prevention

Chlamydia is one of the most commonly reported bacterial sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It is caused by the Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium, which may infect the urethra and rectum in both sexes and the cervix in women. Occasionally chlamydia can also affect other parts of the body, including the throat, lungs, liver and eyes.

Global chlamydia statistics show that an estimated 92 million new chlamydia infections occur each year, affecting more women (50 million) than men (42 million). Chlamydia can cause serious problems later in life if left untreated.

Chlamydia symptoms and signs

Symptoms usually appear between 1 and 3 weeks after exposure but may not emerge until much later. Chlamydia is known as the ‘silent’ disease as in many people it produces no symptoms. It is estimated that 70-75% of women infected with chlamydia are asymptomatic (have no symptoms) and a significant proportion of men also have no symptoms. Those who do have symptoms may experience:

• Women

• a minor increase in vaginal discharge caused by an inflamed cervix.
• cystitis (an inflammation of the lining of the bladder).
• the need to urinate more frequently, or pain whilst passing urine.
• pain during sexual intercourse or bleeding after sex.
• mild lower abdominal pains.
• irregular menstrual bleeding.
• a painful swelling and irritation in the eyes (if they become infected).

• Men

• Men are more likely to notice symptoms than women, though they too may be asymptomatic.
• a white/cloudy and watery discharge from the penis that may stain underwear.
• a burning sensation and/or pain when passing urine.
• a painful swelling and irritation in the eyes (if they become infected).

In both men and women a chlamydia infection in the rectum will rarely cause symptoms.

How is chlamydia passed on?

Chlamydia can be transmitted:

• by having unprotected vaginal, anal or oral sex with someone who is infected.
• from a mother to her baby during vaginal childbirth.
• by transferring the infection on fingers from the genitals to the eyes, although it is rare for this to happen.

Where to go for help

If you have any symptoms or you are worried you may have been infected with chlamydia, you should discuss your worries with a doctor. They may be able to run tests or offer you treatment themselves, or else will refer you to someone who can.

In some countries, local pharmacies and chemists may offer chlamydia testing kits that allow a person to take a sample themselves for analysis by the pharmacy.

Some countries also have specific sexual health clinics that can help you directly. Check our help and advice page or your local telephone directory to see if you have a clinic near you.

The diagnosis of chlamydia

To find out if someone has chlamydia, a doctor or nurse will usually carry out the following examinations and tests:

• an examination will be done of a patient’s genital area.
• a urine sample may be taken.
• samples will be taken from any possibly infected areas, using a cotton wool or spongy swab.
• women will usually be given an internal pelvic examination, similar to a smear test, where a swab sample is taken from the cervix.
• men will be given an external examination of their testicles to check that these are healthy.

The examinations may be uncomfortable but they are unlikely to cause any pain.

Chlamydia will be detectable a few days after being infected, often before any symptoms have appeared.

Samples taken during the examinations are sent to a laboratory for testing. The result is usually available within one week, though this may vary depending on location.

Treatment of chlamydia

The treatment of chlamydia is simple and effective once the infection has been diagnosed, consisting of a short course of antibiotic tablets.

If a patient is allergic to any antibiotics, or if there is any possibility that they may be pregnant, it is important that the doctor is informed as this may affect which antibiotics are prescribed. Treatment must not be interrupted once a course of antibiotics has been started; otherwise it may be necessary to start again from the beginning.

The doctor or health advisor will discuss the chlamydia infection and answer any questions. They will also want to know about any partners the patient has had sexual contact with in the past six months, as they will also be at risk of having chlamydia and should be tested.

The infected patient should not have penetrative sex until treatment has finished and the doctor has confirmed they no longer have chlamydia by re-testing.

Follow-up

It is important that the patient returns for a check-up once the treatment has been completed to make sure they are well and have no recurring infection.

Complications

If chlamydia is left undiagnosed and untreated then it is more difficult to deal with. Early diagnosis and treatment means that chlamydial infection can be cleared up easily, but if it is left unchecked then other problems can arise.

• Women

• Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) - an inflammation of the fallopian tubes (the tubes along which an egg passes to get to the womb). PID increases the future risk of ectopic pregnancy (a pregnancy outside the womb) or premature birth. If the fallopian tubes are scarred, it can also lead to problems with fertility. Female infertility can often be traced back to infection with chlamydia.
• Mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT) - during pregnancy chlamydia can potentially be passed on to the baby, giving it an eye or lung infection. Chlamydia can be safely treated during pregnancy provided the correct antibiotics are prescribed.
• Cervicitis - symptoms include a yellowish vaginal discharge and pain during sex. In long-term cervicitis the cervix becomes very inflammed and cysts can develop and become infected. This can lead to deep pelvic pain and backache.

• Men

• Complications caused by chlamydia in men are uncommon, but if left untreated a long-term infection may lead to:
• Epididymitis - painful inflammation of the tube system that is part of the testicles, which can lead to infertility.
• Urethritis - inflammation of the urine tube (urethra), causing a yellow or clear pus-like discharge to collect at the tip of the penis. Left untreated it can lead to a narrowing of the urethra, which can affect the ability to urinate easily and can potentially cause kidney problems.

• Men and women

• Complications that can occur in both sexes are:
• Reiters syndrome - can cause inflammation of the eyes and joints and sometimes a rash on the genitals and soles of the feet.
• Appendicitis (inflammation of the appendix).

Chlamydia prevention

Using condoms greatly reduces the risk of chlamydia being passed on during sex. Getting tested for STIs at a sexual health clinic, and encouraging new partners to get tested before having sexual intercourse, also helps to prevent transmission.

If you think you may have any of the symptoms listed above then getting tested is highly recommended. Visit the nearest G.U.M. (Genito-Urinary Medicine) clinic, sexual health clinic or doctor as soon as possible to avoid complications. In countries such as the USA and UK, all pregnant women are offered a test for STDs such as chlamydia, and it is recommended that all sexually active women under the age of 25 get screened for STDs at least once a year.

When should sex education start?

Sex education that works starts early, before young people reach puberty, and before they have developed established patterns of behaviour.^{15 16 17} The precise age at which information should be provided depends on the physical, emotional and intellectual development of the young people as well as their level of understanding. What is covered and also how, depends on who is providing the sex education, when they are providing it, and in what context, as well as what the individual young person wants to know about.

It is important not to delay providing information to young people but to begin when they are young. Providing basic information provides the foundation on which more complex knowledge is built up over time. This also means that sex education has to be sustained. For example, when they are very young, children can be informed about how people grow and change over time, and how babies become children and then adults, and this provides the basis on which they understand more detailed information about puberty provided in the pre-teenage years. They can also when they are young, be provided with information about viruses and germs that attack the body. This provides the basis for talking to them later about infections that can be caught through sexual contact.

Providing basic information provides the foundation on which more complex knowledge is built up over time.

Some people are concerned that providing information about sex and sexuality arouses curiosity and can lead to sexual experimentation. There is no evidence that this happens.^{18 19} It is important to remember that young people can store up information provided at any time, for a time when they need it later on.

Sometimes it can difficult for adults to know when to raise issues, but the important thing is to maintain an open relationship with children which provides them with opportunities to ask questions when they have them. Parents and carers can also be proactive and engage young people in discussions about sex, sexuality and relationships. Naturally, many parents and their children feel embarrassed about talking about some aspects of sex and sexuality. Viewing sex education as an on-going conversation about values, attitudes and issues as well as providing facts can be helpful. The best basis to proceed on is a sound relationship in which a young person feels able to ask a question or raise an issue if they feel they need to. It has been shown that in countries like The Netherlands, where many families regard it as an important responsibility to talk openly with children about sex and sexuality, this contributes to greater cultural openness about sex and sexuality and improved sexual health among young people.²⁰

The role of many parents and carers as sex educators changes as young people get older and young people are provided with more opportunities to receive formal sex education through schools and community-settings. However, it doesn't get any less important. Because sex education in school tends to take place in blocks of time, it can't always address issues relevant to young people at a particular time, and parents can fulfill a particularly important role in providing information and opportunities to discuss things as they arise.²¹

Who should provide sex education?

Different settings provide different contexts and opportunities for sex education. At home, young people can easily have one-to-one discussions with parents or carers which focus on specific issues, questions or concerns. They can have a dialogue about their attitudes and views. Sex education at home also tends to take place over a long time, and involve lots of short interactions between parents and children. There may be times when young people seem reluctant to talk, but it is important not to interpret any diffidence as meaning that there is nothing left to talk about. As young people get older advantage can be taken of opportunities provided by things seen on television for example, as an opportunity to initiate conversation. It is also important not to defer dealing with a question or issue for too long as it can suggest that you are unwilling to talk about it.

In school the interaction between the teacher and young people takes a different form and is often provided in organised blocks of lessons. It is not as well suited to advising the individual as it is to providing information from an impartial point of view. The most effective sex education acknowledges the different contributions each setting can make. Schools programmes which involve parents, notifying them what is being taught and when, can support the initiation of dialogue at home. Parents and schools both need to engage with young people about the messages that they get from the media, and give them opportunities for discussion.

In some countries, the involvement of young people themselves in developing and providing sex education has increased as a means of ensuring the relevance and accessibility of provision. Consultation with young people at the point when programmes are designed, helps ensure that they relevant and the involvement of young people in delivering programmes may reinforce messages as they model attitudes and behaviour to their peers.^{22 23 24}

Effective school-based sex education

School-based sex education can be an important and effective way of enhancing young people's knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. There is widespread agreement that formal education should include sex education and what works has been well-researched. Evidence suggests that effective school programmes will include the following elements:

• A focus on reducing specific risky behaviours;
• A basis in theories which explain what influences people's sexual choices and behaviour;
• A clear, and continuously reinforced message about sexual behaviour and risk reduction;
• Providing accurate information about, the risks associated with sexual activity, about contraception and birth control, and about methods of avoiding or deferring intercourse;
• Dealing with peer and other social pressures on young people; Providing opportunities to practise communication, negotiation and assertion skills;
• Uses a variety of approaches to teaching and learning that involve and engage young people and help them to personalise the information;
• Uses approaches to teaching and learning which are appropriate to young people's age, experience and cultural background;
• Is provided by people who believe in what they are saying and have access to support in the form of training or consultation with other sex educators.

Formal programmes with these elements have been shown to increase young people's levels of knowledge about sex and sexuality, put back the average age at which they first have sexual intercourse and decrease risk when they do have sex . All the elements are important and inter-related, and sex education needs to be supported by links to sexual health services, otherwise it is not going to be so effective . It also takes into account the messages about sexual values and behaviour young people get from other sources, like friends and the media. It is also responsive to the needs of the young people themselves - whether they are girls or boys, on their own or in a single sex or mixed sex group, and what they know already, their age and experiences.

Taking Sex Education Forward

Providing effective sex education can seem daunting because it means tackling potentially sensitive issues. However, because sex education comprises many individual activities, which take place across a wide range of settings and periods of time, there are lots of opportunities to contribute.

The nature of a person's contribution depends on their relationship, role and expertise in relation to young people. For example, parents are best placed in relation to young people to provide continuity of individual support and education starting from early in their lives. School-based education programmes are particularly good at providing information and opportunities for skills development and attitude clarification in more formal ways, through lessons within a curriculum. Community-based projects provide opportunities for young people to access advice and information in less formal ways. Sexual health and other health and welfare services can provide access to specific information, support and advice. Sex education through the mass media, often supported by local, regional or national Government and non-governmental agencies and departments, can help to raise public awareness of sex health issues.

Because sex education can take place across a wide range of settings, there are lots of opportunities to contribute.

Further development of sex education partly depends on joining up these elements in a coherent way to meet the needs of young people. There is also a need to pay more attention to the needs of specific groups of young people like young parents, young lesbian, gay and bisexual people, as well as those who may be out of touch with services and schools and socially vulnerable, like young refugees and asylum-seekers, young people in care, young people in prisons, and also those living on the street.

The circumstances and context available to parents and other sex educators are different from place to place. Practical or political realities in a particular country may limit people's ability to provide young people with comprehensive sex education combining all the elements in the best way possible. But the basic principles outlined here apply everywhere. By making our own contribution and valuing that made by others, and by being guided by these principles, we can provide more sex education that works and improve the support we offer to young people.

What is sex education?

Sex education, which is sometimes called sexuality education or sex and relationships education, is the process of acquiring information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity, relationships and intimacy. Sex education is also about developing young people's skills so that they make informed choices about their behaviour, and feel confident and competent about acting on these choices. It is widely accepted that young people have a right to sex education, partly because it is a means by which they are helped to protect themselves against abuse, exploitation, unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS.^{1 2 3 4 5}

What are the aims of sex education?

Sex education seeks both to reduce the risks of potentially negative outcomes from sexual behaviour like unwanted or unplanned pregnancies and infection with sexually transmitted diseases, and to enhance the quality of relationships. It is also about developing young people's ability to make decisions over their entire lifetime. Sex education that works, by which we mean that it is effective, is sex education that contributes to this overall aim.

What skills should sex education develop?

If sex education is going to be effective it needs to include opportunities for young people to develop skills, as it can hard for them to act on the basis of only having information.^{6 7} The kinds of skills young people develop as part of sex education are linked to more general life-skills. For example, being able to communicate, listen, negotiate, ask for and identify sources of help and advice, are useful life-skills and can be applied in terms of sexual relationships. Effective sex education develops young people's skills in negotiation, decision-making, assertion and listening. Other important skills include being able to recognise pressures from other people and to resist them, deal with and challenge prejudice, seek help from adults - including parents, carers and professionals - through the family, community and health and welfare services. Sex education that works, also helps equip young people with the skills to be able to differentiate between accurate and inaccurate information, discuss a range of moral and social issues and perspectives on sex and sexuality, including different cultural attitudes and sensitive issues like sexuality, abortion and contraception.^{8 9 10}

Forming attitudes and beliefs

Young people can be exposed to a wide range of attitudes and beliefs in relation to sex and sexuality. These sometimes appear contradictory and confusing. For example, some health messages emphasis the risks and dangers associated with sexual activity and some media coverage promotes the idea that being sexually active makes a person more attractive and mature. Because sex and sexuality are sensitive subjects, young people and sex educators can have strong views on what attitudes people should hold, and what moral framework should govern people's behaviour - these too can sometimes seem to be at odds. Young people are very interested in the moral and cultural frameworks that binds sex and sexuality. They often welcome opportunities to talk about issues where people have strong views, like abortion, sex before marriage, lesbian and gay issues and contraception and birth control. It is important to remember that talking in a balanced way about differences in opinion does not promote one set of views over another, or mean that one agrees with a particular view. Part of exploring and understanding cultural, religious and moral views is finding out that you can agree to disagree.

Attempts to impose narrow moralistic views about sex and sexuality on young people through sex education have failed.

People providing sex education have attitudes and beliefs of their own about sex and sexuality and it is important not to let these influence negatively the sex education that they provide. For example, even if a person believes that young people should not have sex until they are married, this does not imply withholding important information about safer sex and contraception. Attempts to impose narrow moralistic views about sex and sexuality on young people through sex education have failed.^{11 12} Rather than trying to deter or frighten young people away from having sex, effective sex education includes work on attitudes and beliefs, coupled with skills development, that enables young people to choose whether or not to have a sexual relationship taking into account the potential risks of any sexual activity.

Effective sex education also provides young people with an opportunity to explore the reasons why people have sex, and to think about how it involves emotions, respect for one self and other people and their feelings, decisions and bodies. Young people should have the chance to explore gender differences and how ethnicity and sexuality can influence people's feelings and options.^{13 14} They should be able to decide for themselves what the positive qualities of relationships are. It is important that they understand how bullying, stereotyping, abuse and exploitation can negatively influence relationships.

So what information should be given to young people?

Young people get information about sex and sexuality from a wide range of sources including each other, through the media including advertising, television and magazines, as well as leaflets, books and websites (such as www.avert.org) which are intended to be sources of information about sex and sexuality. Some of this will be accurate and some inaccurate. Providing information through sex education is therefore about finding out what young people already know and adding to their existing knowledge and correcting any misinformation they may have. For example, young people may have heard that condoms are not effective against HIV/AIDS or that there is a cure for AIDS. It is important to provide information which corrects mistaken beliefs. Without correct information young people can put themselves at greater risk.

Information is also important as the basis on young people can developed well- informed attitudes and views about sex and sexuality. Young people need to have information on all the following topics:

• Sexual development
• Reproduction
• Contraception
• Relationships

They need to have information about the physical and emotional changes associated with puberty and sexual reproduction, including fertilisation and conception and about sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. They also need to know about contraception and birth control including what contraceptives there are, how they work, how people use them, how they decide what to use or not, and how they can be obtained. In terms of information about relationships they need to know about what kinds of relationships there are, about love and commitment, marriage and partnership and the law relating to sexual behaviour and relationships as well as the range of religious and cultural views on sex and sexuality and sexual diversity. In addition, young people should be provided with information about abortion, sexuality, and confidentiality, as well as about the range of sources of advice and support that is available in the community and nationally.

Heaviest Bird Ever Alive - 2 candidates

(contribution by Christoph Kulmann)

Elephant BirdThe Elephant Bird (shown above under biggest eggs) is thought to have been the inspiration for the Roc (or Ruhk) made famous in the stories of Sinbad and the accounts of Marco Polo. While Aepyornis was by no means as large and terrible as the elephant-eating Roc, it WAS one of the largest birds that ever lived. The flightless bird grew to around ten or eleven feet tall, and is estimated to have weighed up to 1100 pounds. By comparison, a BIG Ostrich will go eight feet and 300 pounds. The home of the Elephant Bird was the island of Madagascar, off the eastern coast of Africa. The island was first populated by African and Indonesian peoples that are thought to have arrived around the time of Christ, about 2000 years ago. They were, in turn, visited by Muslim traders from East Africa and the Comoro Islands in the ninth century. The first Europeans to visit the island were the Portuguese in 1500, but Europeans didn’t really establish a foothold on the island until the French settled there beginning in 1642. The Elephant Bird was probably still around at that time but it had already become very rare. One of the only contemporary European accounts of the bird was written by the first French Governor of Madagascar, Étienne de Flacourt, who wrote, in 1658, "vouropatra - a large bird which haunts the Ampatres and lays eggs like the ostriches; so that the people of these places may not take it, it seeks the most lonely places." The natives’ histories of the Elephant Bird, however, rarely describe it as an aggressive bird, and more often portray it as a shy, peaceful giant. Most likely the Vouron Patra was driven to extinction by people raiding their nests. The eggs and egg shells were both very important items to the tribal Malagasy, who used them for food and all kinds of stuff. The fossil record shows that maximus was not the only species of Aepyornis that ever lived. It is thought that between three and seven different types of Elephant Bird have lived since the Pleistocene although only one, the smaller Aepyornis mullerornis is thought to have survived into historic times along with the Elephant Bird. Only the giant is known to have co-existed with humans, and by 1700, it too was gone.

Only the largest of the New Zealand Moas were taller, some reaching thirteen feet, but they weren’t as massively built. Moa were large flightless birds that went extinct in the late 1700’s or early 1800’s. These huge, bulky birds lived in lowland forests on the islands of New Zealand. The word moa comes from the Maori language, in which the plural of moa is moa (we are using that convention). The oldest-known moa fossils date from 2.4 million years ago. The last of the moa (the smaller species) lived on the South Island of New Zealand until the 1700’s. On its native New Zealand, there were no large mammals to prey on the moa or its eggs; its only predators large birds, like the Haast eagle (which is now extinct). When the Maori people moved to New Zealand over 1,000 years ago, they destroyed much of the moa’s lowland forest habitat and introduced mammals, including dogs and rats. These mammals ate the moa’s eggs. The Maori people also hunted and ate the moa. These forces probably contributed to the extinction of the moa. The moa had a large body, a small head, a long neck, short, thick legs, and a large beak. There were 11 species of moa. The largest was almost 11.5 feet (3.5 m) tall and weighed perhaps 700 pounds (320 kg); the smallest of the moa were turkey-sized. The moa’s nest was located on the ground (leaving the eggs vulnerable to predators). The moa was an herbivore (plant-eater); it ate fruit and some plant material (like leaves). These birds swallowed stones (which went into gizzard) that helped digest the food. Classification: Kingdom Animalia (animals), phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates), class Aves (birds), order Dinornithiformes, family Anomalopterygidae (the lesser moa) and family Dinornithidae (the greater moa). There were 11 (or possibly 13) different species of moa, including Dinornis, the biggest moa and the biggest bird that ever lived.

In ancient Australia, until 50,000 years ago, there was a group of birds called the Dromornithids. By far the largest of them was "Dromornis stirtoni", a massive creature that stood 3 meters tall and must have weighed more than half a ton. They disappeared rather abruptly, and there is still much debate about the reasons. But the Australians seem to have kept a memory of these giant birds. In some legends, there is a creature called "mihirung", and most likely this means a dromornithid bird.

Smelliest Bird

The south American hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) has an odor similar to cow manure. Colombians call it pava hedionda ("stinking pheasant"). The cause of the smell is believed to be a combination of its diet of green leaves and its specialized digestive system, which involves a kind of foregut fermentation.

Large Flocks

Flamingoes, with their long necks and legs, have a height range of 3-5 feet and are the biggest bird to form large flocks. Of the four species, the lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) of eastern and southern Africa has been seen in flocks of several million birds, particularly in the Great Lakes of eastern Africa.

Biggest Bird

The largest and strongest living bird is the North African ostrich (Struthio camelus . Males can be up to 9 feet tall and weigh 345 pounds, and when fully grown the have one of the most advanced immune systems of any animal. South Africa was the first country to see the commercial potential of ostrich products - the creature are prized not only for their large soft white feathers and their meat but also for their skins, which are made into the strongest commercially available leather in the world. Ostrich farming is believed to have begun in the Karoo and Eastern Cape c. 1863. By 1910 there were more than 20,000 domesticated ostriches in the country, and by 1913 ostrich feathers were the fourth most important south African export product. Demand began to dry up soon afterwards, but there was an ostrich revival in the 1920’s when farmers started to produce biltong ( dry strips of ostrich meat) commercially.

Heaviest Parrot

Flightless Kakapo around 7lbs in weight; New Zealand [contributed by Harold Armitage, Wild Macaws Wild Macaws]

SinbadA flightless nocturnal bird, which was described by early European settlers as " the most wonderful bird on Earth, " the Kakapo parrot was once endemic throughout New Zealand. Today only 50 birds remain, some of which live on Little Barrier Island (Hauturu) as part of a Department of Conservation endangered species recovery programme.

The name "Kakapo" is Polynesian (Maori) for "parrot of the night." Moss green, like Kakapo "Suzanne’s" foster brood, Codfish Island, 2002. Photo by Don Merton/DOC.the foliage of the native trees and grasses in which it evolved, funny and cuddly, with a wonderful spicy fragrance, this unique bird has small wings, useless for flight but handy to steer with when you’re jumping down a bank, and a rudimentary keel in its sternum. It browses forest trees, ferns, herbs, moss and lichen and grinds its food between a powerful lower mandible and a grooved pad in the upper mandible, a method of mastication which is thought to be unique.

Tallest Flying Birdscrane

The largest cranes (family Gruidae) can be almost 6 ft. 6 in. tall.
Heaviest Flying Birds

The Kori Bustard or paauw (Ardeotis Kori) of northeast and southern Africa and the great bustard (Otis tarda) of Europe and Asia weigh about 40-42 pounds. There is a report of a 46 lb. 4 oz. male great bustard shot in northeastern China. It was too heavy to fly.